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Forensic science (often known as
forensics) is the application of a broad spectrum of
sciences and
technologies to investigate and establish facts of interest in relation to criminal or civil law.
[1] The word
forensic comes from the Latin
forēnsis, meaning "of or before the forum."
[2] In Roman times, a criminal charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the
forum.
Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give
speeches based on their sides of the story. The individual with the best
argument and delivery would determine the outcome of the case. This
origin is the source of the two modern usages of the word
forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation.
In modern use, the term "forensics" in the place of "forensic
science" can be considered correct as the term "forensic" is effectively
a
synonym
for "legal" or "related to courts". However the term is now so closely
associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the
meaning that equates the word "forensics" with "forensic science".
In the United States there are over 12,000 Forensic Science technicians, as of 2010.
[3]
History
Antiquity and the Middle Age
Archimedes may have used his principle of buoyancy to determine whether the golden crown was less
dense than solid gold.
The
ancient world
lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in
escaping punishment. Criminal investigations and trials relied on forced
confessions and witness
testimony.
However ancient sources contain several accounts of techniques that
foreshadow the concepts of forensic science that is developed centuries
later, such as the
"Eureka" legend told of
Archimedes (287–212 BC).
[4]
The account about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for
determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape. According
to
Vitruvius, a
votive crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II, who had supplied the pure
gold to be used, and Archimedes was asked to determine whether some
silver had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith.
[5]
Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown, so he
could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to
calculate its
density.
The first written account of using
medicine and
entomology to solve (separate) criminal cases is attributed to the book of
Xi Yuan Lu (translated as "Washing Away of Wrongs"
[6][7]), written in
Song Dynasty China by
Song Ci
(宋慈, 1186–1249) in 1248. In one of the accounts, the case of a person
murdered with a sickle was solved by a death investigator who instructed
everyone to bring his sickle to one location. (He realized it was a
sickle by testing various blades on an animal carcass and comparing the
wound.) Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a
single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed. The book also
offered advice on how to distinguish between a
drowning (water in the
lungs) and
strangulation (broken neck
cartilage), along with other evidence from examining corpses on determining if a death was caused by murder, suicide or an accident.
Methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the
mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt. In ancient
Chinese cultures, sometimes suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice and spit it back out. In ancient
middle-eastern
cultures the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly. Both of
these test had some validity since a guilty person would produce less
saliva and thus have a drier mouth. The accused were considered guilty
if rice was sticking to their mouth in abundance or if their tongues
were severely burned due to lack of shielding from saliva.
Modern history
In the 16th-century Europe medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on cause and
manner of death.
Ambroise Paré, a French army
surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs. Two
Italian surgeons,
Fortunato Fidelis and
Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern
pathology
by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the
result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these topics
began to appear. These included
A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health by the French physician
Fodéré and
The Complete System of Police Medicine by the German medical expert
Johann Peter Franck.
In 1773 a Swedish chemist
Carl Wilhelm Scheele devised a way of detecting arsenous oxide, simple
arsenic, in corpses, although only in large quantities. This investigation was expanded, in 1806, by German chemist
Valentin Ross, who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim's stomach, and by English chemist
James Marsh, who used chemical processes to confirm arsenic as the cause of death in an 1836 murder trial.
Two early examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of
logic and
procedure in criminal investigations. In 1784, in
Lancaster,
John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a
pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad
(crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in
his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms'
pocket. In
Warwick
in 1816, a farm labourer was tried and convicted of the murder of a
young maidservant. She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the
marks of violent assault. The police found footprints and an impression
from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp earth near the pool.
There were also scattered grains of
wheat
and chaff. The breeches of a farm labourer who had been threshing wheat
nearby were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the
earth near the pool.
[8] Police started using fingerprints for evidence when
Juan Vucetich solved a murder case in Argentina by cutting off a piece of door with a bloody fingerprint on it.
[9] Later in the 20th century several British pathologists,
Bernard Spilsbury,
Francis Camps,
Sydney Smith and
Keith Simpson
pioneered new forensic science methods in Britain. In 1909 Rodolphe
Archibald Reiss founded the first school of forensic science in the
world: the
Institut de police scientifique of the
University of Lausanne (UNIL).
Forensic science has been fostered by a number of national forensic science learned bodies including the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1948; publishers of the
Journal of Forensic Sciences), the
Canadian Society of Forensic Science (founded 1953; publishers of the
Journal of the Canadian Society of Forensic Science),
The British Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1960; publishers of
Medicine,science and the law (journal)), and the
Australian Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1967; publishers of the
Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences).
A
history of forensic photography can be viewed here.
Subdivisions
Police forensic investigation in
Ashton-under-Lyne, England, using a tent to protect the crime scene
- Computational forensics concerns the development of algorithms and software to assist forensic examination.
- Criminalistics is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating to examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tire tracks), controlled substances, ballistics,
firearm and toolmark examination, and other evidence in criminal
investigations. In typical circumstances evidence is processed in a Crime lab.
- Digital forensics
is the application of proven scientific methods and techniques in order
to recover data from electronic / digital media. Digital Forensic
specialists work in the field as well as in the lab.
- Forensic accounting is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence
- Forensic aerial photography is the study and interpretation of aerial photographic evidence
- Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains.
- Forensic archaeology is the application of a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.
- Forensic astronomy uses methods from astronomy to determine past celestial constellations for forensic purposes.
- Forensic botany is the study of plant life in order to gain information regarding possible crimes.
- Forensic chemistry is the study of detection and identification of illicit drugs, accelerants used in arson cases, explosive and gunshot residue.
- Forensic dactyloscopy is the study of fingerprints.
- Forensic document examination or questioned document examination
answers questions about a disputed document using a variety of
scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve a comparison
of the questioned document, or components of the document, with a set
of known standards. The most common type of examination involves
handwriting, whereby the examiner tries to address concerns about
potential authorship.
- Forensic DNA analysis takes advantage of the uniqueness of an individual's DNA to answer forensic questions such as paternity/maternity testing and placing a suspect at a crime scene, e.g. in a rape investigation.
- Forensic engineering is the scientific examination and analysis of structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage.
- Forensic entomology deals with the examination of insects
in, on and around human remains to assist in determination of time or
location of death. It is also possible to determine if the body was
moved after death using entomology.
- Forensic geology deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals and petroleum.
- Forensic geophysics is the application of geophysical techniques such as radar for detecting objects hidden underground or underwater.[10]
- Forensic intelligence
process starts with the collection of data and ends with the
integration of results within into the analysis of crimes under
investigation[11]
- Forensic Interviews
are conducted using the science of professionally using expertise to
conduct a variety of investigative interviews with victims, witnesses,
suspects or other sources to determine the facts regarding suspicions,
allegations or specific incidents in either public or private sector
settings.
- Forensic limnology
is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or around
fresh-water sources. Examination of biological organisms, in particular diatoms, can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.
- Forensic linguistics deals with issues in the legal system that requires linguistic expertise.
- Forensic meteorology is a site-specific analysis of past weather conditions for a point of loss.
- Forensic odontology is the study of the uniqueness of dentition, better known as the study of teeth.
- Forensic optometry is the study of glasses and other eye wear relating to crime scenes and criminal investigations
- Forensic pathology is a field in which the principles of medicine and pathology are applied to determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal inquiry.
- Forensic podiatry is an application of the study of feet footprint or footwear and their traces to analyze scene of crime and to establish personal identity in forensic examinations.
- Forensic psychiatry is a specialized branch of psychiatry as applied to and based on scientific criminology.
- Forensic psychology
is the study of the mind of an individual, using forensic methods.
Usually it determines the circumstances behind a criminal's behavior.
- Forensic seismology
is the study of techniques to distinguish the seismic signals generated
by underground nuclear explosions from those generated by earthquakes.
- Forensic serology is the study of the body fluids.[12]
- Forensic toxicology is the study of the effect of drugs and poisons on/in the human body.
- Forensic video analysis is the scientific examination, comparison and evaluation of video in legal matters.
- Mobile device forensics
is the scientific examination and evaluation of evidence found in
mobile phones, e.g. Call History and Deleted SMS, and includes SIM Card
Forensics
- Trace evidence analysis is the analysis and comparison of trace evidence including glass, paint, fibres and hair.
- Wildlife Forensic Science
applies a range of scientific disciplines to legal cases involving
non-human biological evidence, to solve crimes such as poaching, animal abuse, and trade in endangered species.
Blood Spatter Analysis is the scientific examination of blood spatter patterns found at a crime scene to reconstruct the events of the crime.
- Forensic Investigation also known as forensic audit is the examination of documents and the interviewing of people to extract evidence.
Notable forensic scientists
Self-portrait of Alphonse Bertillon, inventor of anthropometry
Questionable techniques
Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the
time they were used, have turned out later to have much less scientific
merit or none.
[13] Some such techniques include:
- Comparative bullet-lead analysis was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. The theory was that each batch of ammunition
possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced
back to a particular batch or even a specific box. Internal studies and
an outside study by the National Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005.[14]
- Forensic dentistry
has come under fire: in at least two cases bite-mark evidence has been
used to convict people of murder who were later freed by DNA evidence. A
1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology
found a 63 percent rate of false identifications and is commonly
referenced within online news stories and conspiracy websites.[15][16]
The study was based on an informal workshop during an ABFO meeting,
which many members did not consider a valid scientific setting.[17]
- Scientists have also shown, in recent years, that it is possible to
fabricate DNA evidence, thus "undermining the credibility of what has
been considered the gold standard of proof in criminal cases".[18]
Litigation science
Litigation science describes analysis or data developed or produced
expressly
for use in a trial versus those produced in the course of independent
research. This distinction was made by the US 9th Circuit Court of
Appeals when evaluating the admissibility of experts.
[19]
This uses
demonstrative evidence, which is evidence created in preparation of trial by
attorneys or
paralegals.
Examples in popular culture
The Argentinean writer
Jorge Luis Borges claims that the police novel genre is inaugurated with
The Murders in the Rue Morgue of
Edgar Allan Poe. But it is first
Sherlock Holmes, the fictional character created by
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
in works produced from 1887 to 1915, who used forensic science as one
of his investigating methods. Conan Doyle credited the inspiration for
Holmes on his teacher at the medical school of the
University of Edinburgh, the gifted surgeon and forensic detective
Joseph Bell.
Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot and
Miss Marple books and television series glorify too a similar prototype.
Decades later the
comic strip Dick Tracy
also featured a detective using a considerable number of forensic
methods, although sometimes the methods were more fanciful than actually
possible.
Barry Allen (
alter ego of The Flash) is a forensic scientist for the Central City police department.
Defence attorney
Perry Mason occasionally used forensic techniques, both in the novels and television series.
One of the earliest
television series to focus on the scientific analysis of evidence was
Quincy, M.E. (1976–83, and based loosely on an even earlier Canadian series titled
Wojeck), with the title character, a
medical examiner working in
Los Angeles solving crimes through careful study. The opening theme of each episode featured a clip of the title character, played by
Jack Klugman,
beginning a lecture to a group of police officers with "Gentlemen, you
are about to enter the most fascinating sphere of police work, the world
of forensic medicine." Later series with similar premises include
Dexter,
The Mentalist,
CSI,
Hawaii Five-0,
Cold Case,
Bones,
Law & Order,
Body of Proof,
NCIS,
Criminal Minds,
Silent Witness,
Case Closed,
Midsomer Murders and
Waking the Dead,
depict glamorized versions of the activities of 21st-century forensic
scientists. Some claim these TV shows have changed individuals'
expectations of forensic science, an influence termed the "
CSI effect".
[20]
Non-fiction TV shows such as
Forensic Files,
The New Detectives,
American Justice, and
Dayle Hinman's
Body of Evidence have also popularized forensic science.
The
Ace Attorney series features forensic science, mainly in
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney and the DS-only case in
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney.
Controversies
Questions about forensic science, fingerprint evidence and the
assumption behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some
publications,
[21][22] the latest being an article in the
New York Post.
[23] The article stated that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone's fingerprint is unique."
[23]
The article also stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned
- and with it may come a radical change in how forensic science is used
by police departments and prosecutors."
[23]
Law professor Jessica Gabel said on NOVA that forensic science, "lacks
the rigors, the standards, the quality controls and procedures that we
find, usually, in science."
[24]
On 25 June 2009 the Supreme Court issued a 5-to-4 decision in
Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts
stating that crime laboratory reports may not be used against criminal
defendants at trial unless the analysts responsible for creating them
give testimony and subject themselves to cross-examination. The Supreme
Court cited the National Academies report
Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States[25]
in their decision. Writing for the majority, Justice Antonin Scalia
referred to the National Research Council report in his assertion that
"Forensic evidence is not uniquely immune from the risk of
manipulation."
In 2009, scientists indicated that it is possible to fabricate DNA
evidence therefore suggesting it is possible to falsely accuse or acquit
a person or persons using forged evidence.
[18]
Although forensic science has greatly enhanced investigators ability
to solve crimes, they have limitations and must be scrutinized in and
out of the courtroom to avoid wrongful convictions, which have happened.
[26]
See also
References
- ^ The Free Dictionary, By farlex. "Forensics". Ads By Google. . http://www.thefreedictionary.com/forensics
- ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed.), Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-920687-2
- ^ U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2011. "19-4092 Forensic Science Technicians". http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes194092.htm
- ^ Schafer, Elizabeth D. (2008). "Ancient science and forensics". In Ayn Embar-seddon, Allan D. Pass (eds.). Forensic Science. Salem Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-58765-423-7.
- ^ Vitruvius. "De Architectura, Book IX, paragraphs 9–12, text in English and Latin". University of Chicago. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
- ^ "Forensics Timeline". Cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2011-12-20.
- ^ A Brief Background of Forensic Science
- ^ Kind S, Overman M (1972). Science Against Crime. New York: Doubleday. pp. 12–13. ISBN 0-385-09249-0.
- ^ "Juan Vucetich". Easybuenosairescity.com. 1925-01-25. Retrieved 2010-06-08.
- ^ "CSI: Geophysics". Physics.org. Retrieved 2011-12-20.
- ^ p.611 Jahankhani,Hamid; Watson, David Lilburn; Me, Gianluigi Handbook of Electronic Security and Digital Forensics World Scientific, 2009
- ^ "Forensic serology". Forensic-medecine.info. Retrieved 2010-06-08.
- ^ Saks, Michael J.; Faigman, David L. (2008). "Failed forensics: how forensic science lost its way and how it might yet find it". Annual Review of Law and Social Science 4: 149–171. doi:10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.4.110707.172303.
- ^ Solomon, John (2007-11-18). "FBI's Forensic Test Full of Holes". The Washington Post. p. A1. Retrieved 2008-03-05.
- ^ Santos, Fernanda (2007-01-28). "Evidence From Bite Marks, It Turns Out, Is Not So Elementary". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-05.
- ^ McRoberts, Flynn (2004-11-29). "Bite-mark verdict faces new scrutiny". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2008-03-05.
- ^ McRoberts, Flynn (2004-10-19). "From the start, a faulty science". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2008-07-13.[dead link]
- ^ a b Polloack, Andrew. "DNA Evidence Can Be Fabricated, Scientists Show". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/18/science/18dna.html. August 17, 2009
- ^ Raloff, Janet (2008-01-19). "Judging Science". Science News. pp. 42 (Vol. 173, No. 3). Archived from the original on 2008-02-28. Retrieved 2008-03-05.
- ^ Holmgren, Janne A.; Fordham, Judith (January 2011). "The CSI Effect and the Canadian and the Australian Jury". Journal of Forensic Sciences 56 (S1): S63–S71. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01621.x
- ^ "'Badly Fragmented' Forensic Science System Needs Overhaul". The National Academies. February 18, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-09.
- ^ "National Academy of Sciences Finds 'Serious Deficiencies' in Nation's Crime Labs". National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers. February 18, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
- ^ a b c Katherine Ramsland (Sunday, March 6, 2009). "CSI: Without a clue; A new report forces Police and Judges to rethink forensic science". The New York Post, PostScript. Retrieved 2009-03-07.
- ^ Jessica Gabel, lawyer and lecturer from NOVA "Forensics on Trial" http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tech/forensics-on-trial.html
- ^ "Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward". Nap.edu. Retrieved 2010-06-08.
- ^ Fabiola Carletti (Tuesday, August 21, 2012). "How body parts evidence gets from crime scene to courtroom". CBC News, PostScript. Retrieved 2012-08-21.
Further reading
- Bartos, Leah, "No Forensic Background? No Problem", ProPublica, April 17, 2012.
- Anil Aggrawal's Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology.
- Crime Science: Methods of Forensic Detection by Joe Nickell and John F. Fischer. University Press of Kentucky, 1999. ISBN 0-8131-2091-8.
- Dead Reckoning: The New Science of Catching Killers by Michael Baden, M.D, former New York City Medical Examiner, and Marion Roach. Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-684-86758-3.
- Forensic Magazine - Forensicmag.com.
- Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken Reynolds. CRC Press, 2004.
- Forensic Science Communications, an open access journal of the FBI.
- Forensic sciences international
- An international journal dedicated to the applications of medicine
and science in the administration of justice - ISSN: 0379-0738 - Elsevier
- Guide to Information Sources in the Forensic Sciences by Cynthia Holt. Libraries Unlimited, 2006. ISBN 1-59158-221-0.
- Haag, Michael G. and Haag, Lucien C. (2011). Shooting Incident Reconstruction: Second Edition. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-382241-3.
- International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics (IJDCF)
- Marrone, L. (2011) La scena del crimine. Storia e tecniche dell'investigazione scientifica. Roma, Kappa Edizioni. ISBN 978-88-6514-070-3.
- Marrone, L. (2011) Introduzione alle Scienze forensi. Roma, Kappa Edizioni. ISBN 978-88-6514-077-2.
- Owen, D. (2000) Hidden Evidence; The Story of Forensic Science and how it Helped to Solve 40 of the World's Toughest Crimes Quintet Publishing, London. ISBN 1-86155-278-5.
- Quinche, Nicolas, Crime, Science et Identité. Anthologie des textes fondateurs de la criminalistique européenne (1860–1930). Genève: Slatkine, 2006, 368p.
- Quinche, Nicolas, « Les victimes, les mobiles et le modus operandi
du criminaliste suisse R.-A. Reiss. Enquête sur les stratégies
discursives d’un expert du crime (1906–1922)" in Revue Suisse d’Histoire, 58, no 4, décembre 2008, pp. 426–444.
- Quinche, Nicolas, « L’ascension du criminaliste Rodolphe Archibald Reiss », in Le théâtre du crime : Rodolphe A. Reiss (1875–1929). Lausanne : Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes, 2009, pp. 231–250.
- Quinche, Nicolas, « Sur les traces du crime : la naissance de la police scientifique et technique en Europe », in Revue internationale de criminologie et de police technique et scientifique, vol. LXII, no 2, juin 2009, pp. 8–10.
- Quinche, Nicolas, and Margot, Pierre, « Coulier, Paul-Jean
(1824–1890) : A precursor in the history of fingermark detection and
their potential use for identifying their source (1863) », in Journal of forensic identification (Californie), 60 (2), March–April 2010, pp. 129–134.
- Quinche, Nicolas, "Sur les traces du crime : de la naissance du
regard indicial à l’institutionnalisation de la police scientifique et
technique en Suisse et en France. L’essor de l’Institut de police
scientifique de l’Université de Lausanne". Genève : Slatkine, 2011,
686p., (Coll. Travaux des Universités suisses), (Thèse de doctorat de l’Université de Lausanne).
- Science Against Crime by Stuart Kind and Michael Overman. Doubleday, 1972. ISBN 0-385-09249-0.
- Stanton G (2003). "Underwater Crime Scene Investigations (UCSI), a New Paradigm". In: SF Norton (ed). Diving for Science... 2003. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences (22nd annual Scientific Diving Symposium). Retrieved 2008-06-18.
- Structure Magazine no. 40, "RepliSet: High Resolution Impressions of the Teeth of Human Ancestors"
by Debbie Guatelli-Steinberg, Assistant Professor of Biological
Anthropology, The Ohio State University and John C. Mitchell, Assistant
Professor of Biomaterials and Biomechanics School of Dentistry, Oregon
Health and Science University.
- The Internet Journal of Biological Anthropology.
- Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science by Allan Jamieson and Andre Moenssens (eds). John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2009. ISBN 978-0-470-01826-2.
- Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science The online version of the Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science by Allan Jamieson and Andre Moenssens (eds)
- "The Real CSI, PBS Frontline documentary, April 17, 2012.
External links
